Saturday 14 January 2012

netowrk security(11)


11. Law & Investigation

1.         IT Act 2000 specifies eight acts which if carried out without the permission of the owner or the person in-charge of a computer system are considered as crimes. List any three such acts and relate them to the type of security attacks.                                          [5]

2.         What are the objectives mentioned in the Preamble to the IT Act?   [6]

3          State any four acts amounting to "cybercrime" as per IT Act 2000.   [4]

4          What are the conditions prescribed in IT Act 2000 for the purpose of Electronic Governance to retain documents, record or information in electronic form for any specified period?       [6]

 

5          What are the short comings of IT Act 2000 that deter companies from approaching the cyber cell for the enforcement?            [4]
6          Explain the various measures required to be taken in Security Testing of a financial institution with respect to IT.                  [9]

 

7          List three penalties related to Cyber crimes from the IT act of India.        [4]

 
8          What is cyber crime and cyber forensic?          [4]

9          Cyber crime may be broadly classified in three groups. Explain each of them. What precautions one has to take to prevent cyber crime in the society?  [8]

 


OVERVIEW OF NETWORK SECURITY

1.What is Encipherment?
   Ans :--     The use of mathematical algorithms to transform data into a form that is not readily intelligible. The transformation and subsequent recovery of the data depend on an algorithm and zero or more encryption keys.

2.What are the four basic tasks in designing a particular security service?
Ans :--
  1. Design an algorithm for performing the security-related transformation.                                            The algorithm should be such that an opponent cannot defeat its purpose.
  2. Generate the secret information to be used with the algorithm.
  3. Develop methods for the distribution and sharing of the secret information
  4. Specify a protocol to be used by the two principals that makes use of   the    security algorithm and the secret information to achieve a particular security.
          
3.Define Threats.
Ans :--
*  Information access threats intercept or modify data on behalf of users who should not have access to that data.
*  Service threats exploit service flaws in computers to inhibit use by legitimate users.

4.What is the use of digital signature?
        Ans :--   Data appended to, or a data unit that allows a recipient of the data unit to prove the source and integrity if the data unit and protect against forgery.

5.Define security recovery.
           Security recovery deals with requests from mechanisms, such as event handling and management functions, and takes recovery actions.

6.What are the aspects of information security?
    There are three aspects of the information security.
*Security attack
*Security mechanism
*Security Service
7.List some common information integrity functions?
Ans :--
*Identification
*Authorization
*Concurrence
*Liability
*Endorsement
*Validation
*Time of occurrence
*Registration
8.What is meant by threat?
Ans :--
      A potential for violation of security, which exists when there is a circumstances,capability,action or event that could breach security and cause harm. That is, a threat is a possible danger that might exploit a vulnerability.

9.What is meant by attack?
Ans :--
       An attack on system security that derives from an intelligent threat: that is an intelligent act that is a deliberate attempt(especially in the sense of a method or technique) to evade security services and violate the security policy of a system.

10.State some example of security attacks?
Ans :--
      1.Gain unauthorized access to information(ie.violate secrecy or privacy)
      2.Disavow responsibility or liability for information the  cheater did originate.
      3.Enlarge cheater’s  legitimate license(for access ,origination, distribution etc).
      4.Pervert the function of software, typically by adding a covert function.
      5.Cause others to violate a protocol by means of introducing incorrect information.

CLASSICAL ENCRYPTION TECHNIQUES


1.What are the essential ingredients of a symmetric cipher?
            A symmetric encryption scheme has five ingredients:
*  Plaintext: This is the original intelligible message or data that is fed into the algorithm as input.
*  Encryption algorithm: The encryption algorithm performs various substitutions and transformations on the plaintext.
*  Secret Key: The secret key is also input to the encryption algorithm. The key is the value independent of the plaintext. The algorithm will produce a different output depending on the specific key being used at the time. The exact substitutions and transformations performed by the algorithm depend on the key.
*  Cipher text: This is the scrambled message produced as output. It depends on the plaintext and the key.
*  Decryption algorithm: This is essentially the encryption algorithm in reverse. It takes the cipher text and the secret key and produces the original plaintext.

2.What are the two basic functions used in the encryption algorithm?
            All the encryption algorithms are based on two general principles:
*  Substitution: In which each element in the plaintext(bit, letter, group of  bits or letters) is mapped into another element.
*  Transposition: In which elements in the plaintext are rearranged.
The fundamental requirement is that no information be lost(that is ,that all operations are reversible). Most systems, referred to as product systems, involve multiple stages of substitutions and transpositions.




3.How many keys are required for two people to communicate via a cipher?
Ans :--
            If both sender and receiver use the same key, the system is referred as symmetric, single-key, secret-key or conventional encryption. If both sender and receiver uses a different key, the system is referred as asymmetric, two-key or public key encryption.

4.What is the difference between a block cipher and a stream cipher?
Ans :--
            A block cipher processes the input one block at a time, producing an output block for each input block.
            A stream cipher processes the input continuously, producing output one element at a time, as it goes alone.

5.What are the two general approaches to attacking a cipher?
Ans :--
            The general two approaches for attacking a cipher
*  Cryptanalysis: Cryptanalytic attacks rely on the nature of the algorithm plus perhaps some knowledge of the general characteristics of the plaintext or even some samples plaintext-cipher text pairs. This type of attack exploits the characteristics of the algorithm to attempt to deduce a specific plaintext or to deduce the key being used. If the attack succeeds in deducing the key, the effect is catastrophic: All future and past messages encrypted with the key are compromised.
*  Brute-force attack: The attacker tries every possible key on a piece of cipher text until an intelligible translation into plaintext is obtained. On average, half of all possible keys must be tried to achieve success.












6.List and briefly define types of cryptanalytic attacks based on what is known to the attacker?
Ans :--
The various types of cryptanalytic attacks, based on the amount of information known to the cryptanalyst
Type of attack                                                  Known to cryptanalyst
Cipher text
*   Encryption algorithm
*   Cipher text to be decoded
Known plaintext
*   Encryption algorithm
*   Cipher text to be decoded
*   One or more plaintext-cipher text    pairs formed with the secret key
Chosen plaintext
*   Encryption algorithm
*   Cipher text to be decoded
*   Plaintext message chosen by cryptanalyst, together with its corresponding cipher text generated with the secret key.
Chosen cipher text
*   Encryption algorithm
*   Cipher text to be decoded
*   Purported cipher text chosen by cryptanalyst, together with its corresponding decrypted plaintext generated with the secret key.
Chosen text
*   Encryption algorithm
*   Cipher text to be decoded
*   Plaintext message chosen by cryptanalyst, together with its corresponding cipher text generated with the secret key.
*   Purported cipher text chosen by cryptanalyst, together with its corresponding decrypted plaintext generated with the secret key


7.What is the difference between an unconditionally secure cipher and a computationally secure cipher?
            An encryption scheme is unconditionally secure if the cipher text generated by the scheme does not contain enough information to determine uniquely the corresponding plaintext, no matter how much cipher text is available.
            An encryption scheme is said to be computationally secure if:
*  The cost of breaking the cipher exceeds the value of the encrypted information.
*  The time required to break the cipher exceeds the useful lifetime of the information.
     

8.Briefly define the Caesar cipher?

Ans :--
            The Caesar cipher involves replacing each letter of the alphabet with the letter standing three places down the alphabet .The alphabet is wrapped around, so that the letter following Z is A.
                        C = E (p) = (p + 3) mod (26)
            The general Caesar cipher algorithm is
                         C = E (p) = (p + k) mod (26)
         where  k takes the value in the range 1 to 25
            The decryption algorithm is
                           p = D(C) = (C - k) mod (26)

9.Briefly define the monoalphabetic cipher?
Ans :---
            A dramatic increase in the key space is achieved by allowing an arbitrary substitution. There are 26!  Possible keys. It is referred to as monoalphabetic substitution cipher, because a single cipher alphabet is used per message.

10.Briefly define the Playfair cipher?     

Ans :--

            The Playfair cipher treats the digrams in the plaintext as single units and translates these units into ciphertext digrams. This algorithm is based on the use of a 5 by 5 matrix of letters constructed using keyword. Consider keyword as monarchy. The matrix is constructed by filling in the letters of the keyword from left to right and from top to bottom, and then filling in the remainder of the matrix with the remaining letters. The letters I, J count as one letter

                                                             
M
O
N
A
R
C
H
Y
B
D
E
F
G
I/J
K
L
P
Q
S
T
U
V
W
X
Z

        The rules to be followed are:
*  Repeating plaintext letters that come in the same pair are separated with a filer letter, such as x.
*  Plaintext letters that fall in the same row are replaced by the letter to the right, with the first element of the row circularly following the first.
*  Plaintext letters that fall in the same column are replaced by the letter   beneath,  with the top element circularly following the last.
*  Otherwise each letter is replaced by the letter that lies in its own row and the column occupied by the other plaintext.

11.What is the difference between a monoalphabetic cipher and a polyalphabetic cipher?
Ans :--             In monoalphabetic cipher single cipher alphabet is used per message. But in polyalphabetic cipher there are multiple ciphertext letters for each plaintext letter, one for each unique letter of keyword.

12.What are two problems with the one-time pad?
Ans :-
            The one- time pad has the following two fundamental difficulties:
(a)                             There is the practical problem of making large quantities of random keys. Supplying truly random characters in this volume is a significant task.
(b)                             For every message to be sent, a key of equal length is needed by both sender and receiver. Thus a mammoth key distribution problem exists.

 

Block Ciphers and The Data Encryption Standard


1.Why is it important to study the Feistel Cipher?
Ans :--
                Feistel cipher using the concept of a product cipher, which is the performing of   two  or  more  basic  ciphers  in  sequence  in  such  a  way  that  the final  result or product is cryptographically stronger then any of the component ciphers.
            Feistel proposed the use of a cipher that alternates substitutions and permutations. So Feistel cipher is considered to be an important one.

2.What is the difference between a block cipher and a stream cipher?
Ans :--
            A block cipher process the input one block of elements at a time producing an output block for each input block.
            A stream cipher process the input elements continuously , producing output one element at a time, as it goes along.




3.Why is it not practical to use an arbitrary reversible substitution cipher of the kind shown in Table.
Ans :--
                        Encryption and decryptions tables for substitution cipher
Plain Text
Cipher Text
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111
1110
0100
1101
0001
0010
1111
1011
1000
0011
1010
0110
1100
0101
1001
0000
0111
Cipher Text
Plain Text
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111
1110
0011
0100
1000
0001
1100
1010
1111
0111
1101
1001
0110
1011
0010
0000
0101

   
In this example the key requires 64 bits. In general, for an n-bit general substitution block cipher, the size of the key is n*2n. For a 64-bit block, which is a desirable length to thwart statistical attacks, the key size is 64*264 = 270 ~ 1021 bits. So it is not practical to use an arbitrarily reversible substitution cipher.


4.What is product cipher?
Ans :--
            Product cipher has the performance of two or more basic ciphers in sequence is such a way that the final result or product  is cryptographically stronger than any of the component ciphers.

5.What is the difference between Diffusion and Confusion?
Ans :--
              In Diffusion the statistical structure of the plaintext is dissipated into long range statistics of the cipher text. This is achieved by having each plaintext digit affect the value of many cipher text digits. Which is equivalent to saying that each cipher text digit is affected by many plaintext digits.
             Confusion seeks to make a relationship between the statistics of the cipher text and the value of the encryption key as complex as possible. Thus even if the attacker can get some handle on the statistics of the cipher text, the way in which the key was used to produce that cipher text is so complex as to make it difficult to deduce the key.

6 .Which parameters and design choices determine the actual      algorithm of a Feistel cipher?
Ans :--
*  Block size: Larger block sizes mean greater security but reduced encryption/decryption speed. A block size of 64 bits is a reasonable tradeoff and has been nearly universal in block cipher design.However, the new AES uses a 128-bit block size.
*  Key size:Larger key size means greater security but may decrease encryption/decryption speed.Key sizes of 64 bits or less are now widely considered to be inadequate, and 128 bits has ecome a common size.
*  Number of rounds: The essence of the Feistel cipher is that a single round offers inadequate security but that multiple rounds offer increasing security.A typical size is 16 rounds.
*  Subkey generation algorithm: Greater complexity in this algorithm should lead to greater difficulty of cryptanalysis.
*  Round function: Again, greater complexity generally means greater resistance to cryptanalysis.

7. What is the purpose of the S-boxes in DES?
Ans :--
            The role of the S-boxes in the function  F is that the substitution consists of a set of eight S-boxes ,each of which accepts 6 bits as input and produces 4 bits as follows: The first and last bits of the input to box Si form a 2-bit binary number to select one of four substitutions defined by the four rows in the table for Si.The middle four bits select one of the sixteen columns.The decimal value in the cell selected by the row and column is then converted to its 4-bit representation to produce the output. For example, in S1,for input 011001,the row is 01 and the column is 1100.The value in row 1,column 12 is 9,so the output is 1001.

8. Explain the avalanche effect?
Ans :--
A desirable property of any encryption algorithm is that a small change in either the plaintext or the key should produce a significant change in the ciphertext.In particular, a change I one of the plaintext or one bit of the key should produce a change in many bits of the ciphertext.




9. What is the difference between differential and linear cyptanalysis?
Ans :--
Linear cryptanalysis based on finding linear approximations to describe the transformations performed in DES

KEY MANAGEMENT:OTHER PUBLIC KEY CRYPTOSYSTEMS

1.What are the two different uses of public-key cryptography related to key distribution?
                
Ans :--         There are two aspects to the use of public-key cryptography
    In this regard:
*  The distribution of public keys
*  The use of public-key encryption to distribution secret
            keys


2.List four general categories of schemes for the distribution of public keys.
Ans :--
*  Public announcement
*  Publicly available directory
*  Public-key authority
*  Public-key certificates


3.What are the essential ingredients of a public-key directory?
Ans :--
*  The authority maintains a directory with a entry for each participant.
*  Each participant registers a public key with the directory authority.
*  A participant may replace the existing key with a new one at any time.
*  Periodically, the authority publishes the entire directory or updates to the directory.
*  Participants could also access   the directory electronically.

4.What is public-key certificate?
Ans :--
                 The public-key authority could be a bottleneck in the system, for a
         user   must appeal to the authority for a public key for every other user    that it wishes to contact. As before the directory of names and public keys maintained by the authority is vulnerable to tempering.

5.What are the requirements for the use of a public-key certificate scheme?
Ans :--
*  Any participant can read a certificate to determine the name and public key of the certificate’s owner.
*  Any participant can verify that the certificate originated from the certificate authority and is not counterfeit.
*  Only the certificate authority can create and update certificates.
*  Any participant can verify the currency of the certificate.

6.Briefly explain Diffie-Hellman key exchange.
Ans :--
The purpose for this algorithm is to enable two users to exchange a key securely that can then be used for subsequent encryption of messages. It depends for its effectiveness on the difficulty of computing discrete logarithms.

Message authentication and hash functions

1)What types of attacks are addressed by message authentication?
                        Content modification     - Changes to the contents of the message
                        Sequence modification  - Any modification to a sequence of messages  between parties, including insertion, deletion, and reordering.
                       Timing modification      - Delay or replay of messages.

2)What two levels of functionality comprise a message authentication or digital signature mechanism?
Ans :--
*  Low-level authentication
*  Higher-level authentication
At the lower level there must be some sort of function that produces an authenticator: a value to be used to authenticate a message. This lower level function is then used as primitive in a higher-level authentication protocol that enables a receiver to verify the authenticity of message.

3) What are some approaches to producing message authentication?
*   Message encryption               - The cipher text of the entire image                                                                                                serves as its authenticator.
*  Message authentication code  - (MAC) A public function of the       message and a secret key that produces a fixed length value that   serves as a authenticator.                                                                  
*  Hash function                         - A public function that maps a                                                                                      message of  any length into a fixed– length                                                                                     hash value, which serves  as
                               the authenticator.
                                                      
4) When combination of symmetric encryption and an error control code is used for message authentication, in what order must the two functions be performed?
         The message is encrypted first, and then the MAC is calculated using the resulting cipher text to form the transmitted block.

5) What is a message authentication code?
                            An alternative authentication technique involves the use of a small fixed size block of data, known as a cryptographic checksum or MAC that is appended to the message.

6) What is the difference between a message authentication code and a one-way hash function?

The difference between an MAC and a one-way hash function is that unlike an MAC, a hash code does not use a key but is a function only of the input message.

7) In what ways can a hash value be secured so as to provide message authentication?
  
The ways in which a hash code can be used to provide message authentication are:
*  The message plus concatenated hash code is encrypted using symmetric encryption.The hash code provides the structure required for authentication.
*  Only the hash code is encrypted using symmetric encryption. This reduces the processing burden.
*  Only the hash code is encrypted using public key encryption and the sender’s private key.This provides digital signature.
*  The message plus the public key-encrypted hash code may be encrypted using a symmetric secret key.
*  A hash function may be used without encryption for message authentication.It assumes that two communicating parties (A and B) share a common key (s). ’A’  computes the hash value over the concatenation of M and S.B knows S and therefore can re-compute M.
*  The entire message plus the hash code may be encrypted.

8)  Is it necessary to recover the secret key in order to attack a MAC algorithm?
 
A number of keys will produce the correct MAC and the opponent has no way of knowing which is the correct key. On an awerage 2(n-k) keys produce a match.Therefore attacks do not require the discovery of the key.

9) What characteristics are needed in a secure hash function?

Requirements of a hash function(H):
*  H can be applied to a block of data of any size.
*  H produces a fixed length output.
*  H(x) is easy to compute for any given x
*  For any given value  h it is computationally infeasible to find y/x with H(y)=H(x).
*  It is computationally infeasible to find any pair(x,y) such that H(x)=H(y).

10) What is the difference between a strong and a weak collision resistance?

*  For any given value  h it is computationally infeasible to find y/x with H(y)=H(x).This is “weak collision resistance”.It is a one-way property.It is easy to generate a code given a message, but almost impossible to do the reverse.
*  It is computationally infeasible to find any pair(x,y) such that H(x)=H(y).This is “strong collision resistance”. This guarantees that an alternative message hashing to the same value as a given message cannot be found.This prevents forgery.

11)What is the function of a compression  function in a hash function?

The hash function involves repeated use of a compression function. The motivation is that if the compression function is collision resistant, then the hash function is also collision  resistant function.So a secure hash function can be produced.

AUTHENTICATION APPLICATIONS

1.What problem was Kerberos designed to address?
           
            The problem that Kerberos addresses is this: Assume an open distributed environment  in  which users at workstations wish to access services on servers distributed throughout the network. We would like for servers to be able to restrict access to authorized users and to be able to authenticate requests for service. In this environment a workstation cannot be trusted to identify  its users correctly to network services.

2.What are the three threats associated with user authentication over a network or Internet?

            The three threats are:

*  A user may gain access to a particular workstation and pretend to another user operating from that workstation.
*  A user may alter the network address of a workstation so that the requests sent from the altered workstation appear to come from the impersonated workstation.
*  A user may eavesdrop on exchanges and use a replay attack to gain entrance to a server or to disrupt operations.

3.List three approaches to secure user authentication in a distributed environment?

            Three approaches to secure user authentication in a distributed environment are:

*  Rely on each individual client workstation to assure the identity of its user or users and rely on each server to enforce a security policy based on user identification (ID).
*  Require that client systems authenticate themselves to servers, but trust the client system concerning the identity of its user.
*  Require the user to prove identity for each service invoked. Also require that servers prove their identity to clients.
 4.What four requirements were defined for Kerberos?

            The four requirements defined for Kerberos are:

*  Secure: A network eavesdropper should not be able to obtain the necessary information to impersonate a user. More generally Kerberos should be strong enough that a potential opponent does not find it to be the weak link.
*  Reliable: For all services that relay on Kerberos for access control, lack of availability of the supported services. Hence, Kerberos should be highly reliable and should employ a distributed server architecture, with one system able to back up another.
*  Transparent: Ideally, the user should not be aware that authentication is taking place, beyond the requirement to enter a password.
*  Scalable: The system should be capable of supporting large numbers of clients and servers. This suggests a modular, distributed architecture.

5.What entities constitute a full-service Kerberos environment?

            A full service environment consists of a Kerberos server, a number of clients and a number of application servers.

6.In the context of Kerberos, what is a realm?
     
*  The Kerberos server must have the user ID (UID) and hashed password of all participating users in its database. All users are registered with the Kerberos server.
*  The Kerberos server must share a secret with each server. All servers are registered with the Kerberos server.
Such an environment is referred to as realm.
           
7.What are the principle differences between version 4 and version 5 of Kerberos?

The principle differences between version 4 and version 5 of Kerberos are:

1.Encryption system dependence
2.Internet Protocol Dependence
3.Message byte ordering
4.Ticket Life Time
5.Authentication Forwarding
6.Interrealm Authentication

ELECTRONIC MAIL SECURITY

1. What are the five principle services provided by the PGP?
        

Function


Algorithm used


Description


Digital Signature

DSS\SHA or RSA\SHA
The hash code of a message is created using SHA1.This message digest is encrypted using DSS or RSA with the sender’s private key and included with the message


Message Encryption
CAST or IDEA or Three-key Triple DES with Diffie-Hellman or RSA
A message is encrypted using CAST-128 or IDEA or 3DES with a one-time session key generated by the sender. The session key is encrypted using Diffie-Hellman or RSA with the recipient’s public key and included with the message

Compression

ZIP
A message may be compressed, for storage or transmission using ZIP

Email compatibility

Radix 64 conversion
To provide transparency for email applications, an encrypted message may be converted to an ASCII string using radix 64 conversion

Segmentation


           ------
To accommodate maximum message size limitations, PGP performs segmentation and reassembly


2.What is the utility of a detached signature?
          A detached signature may be stored and transmitted separately from the message it signs.  This is useful in several contexts.  A user may wish to maintain a separate signature log of all messages sent or received. A detached signature of an executable program can detect subsequent virus infection.  Finally detached signature can be used when more than one party must sign a document, such as legal contract.

  3. Why does PGP generate a signature before applying compression?

       The signature is generated before compression due to 2 reasons:
    
1. It is preferable to sign an uncompressed message so that one can store only the              uncompressed message together with the signature for future verification
2. Even if one were willing to generate dynamically a recompressed message for     verification, PGP’s compression algorithm presents a difficulty


4.What is Radix 64 conversion?
Radix 64 converts the input stream into radix 64 format.
It expands a message by 33%

5.Why is R 64 conversion useful for email generation?
The Radix 64 conversion is performed before the segmentation of the messages take place
The use of radix 64 is that it converts he input stream to 33%. The radix 64 converts the input stream to a radix 64 format

6.What is MIME?
              Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) is an extension to the RFC 822 framework that is intended to address some of the problems and limitations of these use of SMTP.
 Some of limitations: -
  1. It cannot transmit executable files or folders.
  2. SMTP servers may reject, mail message over a certain size.

7.Why is the segmentation and reassembly function in PGP is needed?
        E-mail facilities often are restricted to a maximum message length.  To accommodate this restriction, PGP automatically subdivides a message that is too large into segments that are small enough to send via e-mail.  The segmentation is done after all of the other processing, including the radix-64 conversion.  Thus, the session key component and signature component appear only once, at the beginning of the first segment.

 

8.What is S/MIME?

       Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension is a security enhancement to the MIME Internet e-mail format standard, based on technology from RSA Data Security.  It is ability to sign and/or encrypt messages.

9.What is RFC 822?
             RFC 822 defines a format for text messages that are sent using electronic mail.
It has been the standard for Internet-based text message and remains in common use.  In the RFC822 context, messages are viewed as having an envelope and contents.  The envelope contains whatever information needed to accomplish transmission and delivery.  The contents compose the object to be delivered to the recipient.

10.How does PGP use the concept of trust?
     PGP provide a convenient means of using trust, associating trust with public keys, and exploiting trust information.  Each entry in the public-key ring is a public key certificate.
Associated with each such entry is a key legitimacy field that indicates the extent to which PGP will trust that this is a valid public key for this user; the higher the level of trust, the stronger is the binding of this user ID to this key.

ipsec

1.Give examples of applications of IPSec?
*  Secure branch office connectivity over the Internet.
*  Secure remote access over the Internet.
*  Establishing extranet and intranet connectivity with partners.
*  Enhancing electronic commerce security.

2.What services are provided by IPSec?
*  Access control
*  Connectionless integrity
*  Data origin authentication
*  Rejection of replayed packets

3.What parameters identify an SA and What parameter Characterize the nature of a particular SA?
            A security association(SA) is uniquely identified by three parameters,
*  Security Parameter Index(SPI)
*  IP Destination Address
*  Security Protocol Identifier
The parameters that characterize the particular SA is
*  Sequence number counter
*  Sequence counter overflow
*  Anti-Replay window
*  AH Information
*  ESP Information
*  Lifetime of this SA
*  IPSec Protocol Mode
*  Path MTU

4.What is the difference between Transport mode and Tunnel mode?
           
Transport mode
Tunnel mode
1.It provides protection for upper layer protocols.
2.Used for end-to-end communication between two host
3.AH:Authenticates IP payload and selected portions of IP header and IPv6 extension header
1. It provides protection to the entire IP packet.
3.It is used when one or both  ends of an SA is a security gateway , such as firewall or router that implement IPSec.
3.Authenticates entir inner IP packet plus selected portions of outer IP header and outer IPv6 extension headers.

5.What is replay attack?

            A replay attack is one which an attacker obtains a copy of an authenticated packet and later transmit it to the intended destination.

6.Why does ESP include a padding field?

             Padding field is added to the ESP to provide partial traffic flow confidentiality by concealing the actual length of the payload.

7.What are the basic approaches to bundling SAs?

            1.Transport adjacency
                        Refers to applying more than one security protocol to the same packet, without invoking tunneling.
            2.Iterated tunneling
                        Refers to the application of multiple layers of security protocol affected through IP tunneling.

FIREWALL

1.List the three design goals for a firewall.
       1.All traffic from inside to outside, and vice versa, must pass through the firewall. This is achieved by physically blocking all access to the local network except via the firewall.
       2.Only authorized traffic, as defined by the local security policy, will be allowed to pass. Various types of firewalls are used, which implement various types of security policies.
       3. The firewall itself is immune to penetration. this implies that use of a trusted system with a secure operating system.

2.List four techniques used by firewalls to control access and enforce a security policy.
·        Service control
·        Direction control
·        User control
·        Behavior control

3.What information does a typical packet-filtering router use?
           Packet filtering router uses the following information:
·        Source IP address:
              The IP address of the system that originated the IP packet
·        Destination IP address:
               The IP address of the system the IP packet is trying to reach
·        Source and destination transport-level address:
                                               The transport level port number,which defines
                          applications  such as SNMP or TELNET
·        IP protocol field:
                  Defines the transport protocol
·        Interface:
                For a router  with three or more ports,which interface of the router the packet came from or which interface of the router the packet is destined for.
             

4.what are some weaknesses of a packet-filtering router?
           
·        They cannot prevents attacks that employ application-specific functions.
·        Logging functionality is limited
·        Do not support advanced user authentication schemes.
·        It cannot detect a network packet in which the OSI layer 3 addressing information has been alerted.
·        They are susceptible to security breaches caused by improper configuration.

5.what is the difference between a packet-filtering router and a stateful inspection firewall?
            A simple packet-filtering firewall must permit inbound network traffic on all these high-numbered ports for TCP-based traffic to occur. This creates a vulnerability that can be exploited by unauthorized users.
            A stateful inspection packet filter tightens up the rules for TCP traffic by creating a directory of outbound TCP connection. The packet filters now allow incoming traffic to high-numbered ports only for those packets that fit the profile of one of the entries in the directory.

6. What is an application level gateway?
            An application level gateway, are also called a proxy server, acts as a relay of application level traffic. The user contacts the gateway using a TCP/IP application, such as telnet or FTP, and the gateway asks the user for the name of the remote host be accessed.
           
7. What is a circuit level gateway?
            A circuit-level gateway does not permit an end-to-end TCP connection; rather, the gateway sets up two TCP connections, one between itself and a TCP user on an inner host and other between itself and a TCP user on an outer host. Once these connections are established, the gateway typically relays TCP segments from one connection to other without examining the contents.

8.what are the differences among the three configuration of firewall?
            In the screened host firewall, single-homed bastion configuration, the firewall consists of two systems: a packet-filtering router and a bastion host.
            In the screened host firewall, dual-homed bastion configuration prevents such a security breach.
            In the screened subnet firewall configuration is the most secure one.
Here two packet filters are used, one between the bastion host and the Internet and one between the bastion host and the internal network.

9.In the context access control, what is the difference between a subject and an object?
            Subject is an entity capable of accessing objects. Any user or application actually gains access to an object by means of a process that represents that user or application.
            Object is one in which anything is controlled.eg.files, programs and segments of memory.

10. What is the difference between an access control list and a capability ticket?
            An access control list lists users and their permitted access rights for each object.
            A capability ticket specifies authorized objects and operations for a user. Each user has a no.of tickets and may be authorized to loan or give them to others.

11.what are the two rules that a reference monitor enforces?
·        No read up
A subject can only read an object of less or equal security level. This is referred to as simple security property.
·        No write down
A subject can only write into an object of grater or equal security level. This is referred to as * property.

12.what properties are required for a reference monitor?
·        Complete mediation: The security rules are enforced on every access, just, for example, when a file is opened.
·        Isolation: The reference monitor and database are protected from unauthorized modification.
·        Verifiability: The reference monitor’s correctness must be provable



Web Security
1.What are the advantages of each of the three approaches shown in the figure?

Figure 1  :                                             Figure 2:

HTTP

FTP
SMTP

TCP

IP/IPSec

HTTP
FTP
SMTP
SSL or TLS
TCP
IP




Figure 3:



S/MIME
PGP
SET
Kerberos
SMTP
HTTP
UDP
TCP
IP

                             
Figure 1:
               The advantage of using IPSec is that it is transparent to end users and applications and provides a general-purpose solution.Further,IPSec includes a filtering capability so that only selected traffic need incur the overhead of IPSec processing.
Figure 2:
               SSL(or TLS) could be provided as part of  the underlying protocol suite and therefore be transparent to applications.
Figure 3:
                The advantage of this approach is that the service can be tailored to the specific needs of a given application.

2.  What protocols comprise SSL?
                 The protocols that comprise SSL are:SSL Handshake Protocol,SSL Change Cipher Spec Protocol,SSL Alert Protocol,Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP) and SSL Recprd Protocol.

3.  What is the difference between an SSL connection and an SSL
          session ?
                    A Connection is a transport that provides a suitable type of service.For SSL,such connections are peer-to-peer relationships.The connections are transient.
                    An SSL session is an association between a client and a server.Sessions are created by the Handshake Protocol.Sessions define a set of cryptographic security parameters, which can be shared among multiple connections.

4. List and briefly define the parameters that define an SSL session state.
                  A session state is defined by the following parameters:
·        Session identifier
·        Peer certificate
·        Compression method
·        Cipher spec
·        Master secret
·        Is resumable

5.  List and briefly define the parameters that define an SSL session connection.

               A connection state is defined by the following parameters:
·        Server and client random
·        Server write MACsecret
·        Client write MACsecret
·        Server write key
·        Client write key
·        Initialization vectors
·        Sequence numbers


ESSAYS

1.Write notes on security service
     1.AUTHENTICATION
            The assurance that the communicating entity is the one that it claims to be.
Peer Entity Authentication:
                      Used in association with a logical connection to provide confidence in the
                       identity of the entities connected.
Data Origin Authentication:
                      In a connectionless transfer, provides assurance that the source of received 
                      data is as claimed.

2.ACCESS CONTROL
      The prevention of unauthorized use of a resource (that is this service control who can have access to a resource, under what condition access can occur, and what those accessing the resource are allowed to do).

3.DATA CONFIDENTIALITY
      The protection of data from unauthorized disclosure
Connection Confidentiality:
           The protection of all user data on a connection.
Connectionless Confidentiality:
           The protection of all user data in a single data block.
Selective –Field Confidentiality:
          

The confidentiality of selective field within the user data on a connection or in a single         
            data block.
Traffic-Flow Confidentiality:
            The protection of the information that might be derived from observation of traffic flows.

DATA INTEGRITY
     The assurance that data received are exactly as sent by an authorized entity.
    Connection Integrity with recovery:
          Provides for the integrity of all user data on a connection and detect any
          modification,ionsertion,deletion,or replay of any data within an entire data
          sequence, with recovery attempted.
Connection Integrity without recovery:
           As above, but provides only detection without recovery.
Selective-Field Connection Integrity:
           Provides for the integrity of selected fields within the user data of the data block
           transferred over a connection and takes the form of determination of whether the
           selected fields have been modified,inserted,deleted or replayed.
Connectionless Integrity:
           Provides for the integrity of a single connectionless data block and may take the
           form of detection of data modifivation.Additionally a limited form of replay
           detection may be provided.
Selective-field Connectionless Integrity:
           Provides for the integrity of selected fields within a single connectionless data   
           block: takes the form of determination of whether the selected fields have been
           modified.
5.NONREPUDIATION
       Provides protection against denial by one of the entities involved in a communication of  having participated in all or part of the communication.
Nonrepudiation ,Origin:
            Proof that the message was sent by the specified party.
Nonrepudiation,Destination:
            Proof that the message was received by the specified party.


  

2.Security Attacks

A useful means of classifying security attacks, used both in x.800 and RFC 2828, is in terms of passive attacks and active attacks. A passive attack attempts to learn or make use of information from the system but does not affect system resources. An active attack attempts to alter system resources or affect their operation.



Passive attacks

Passive attacks are in the nature of eavesdropping on, or monitoring of, transmissions. Two types of passive attacks are release of message contents and traffic analysis. The release of message contents is easily understood. A telephone conversation, an electronic mail message, and a transferred file may contain sensitive or confidential information.
    A second type of passive attack, traffic analysis, is subtler. Suppose that we had a      
Way of masking the contents of messages or other information traffic so that opponents, even if they captured the message, could not extract the information from the message.
     Passive attacks are very difficult to detect because they do not involve any alteration of the data.

Active attacks
Active attacks involves some modification of the data stream or the creation of a false
Stream and can be subdivided into four categories.
                                  I.      Masquerade
                               II.      Replay
                             III.      Modification of message
                            IV.      Denial of service
A masquerade takes place when one entity when one entity pretends to be a different entity. A masquerade attack usually includes one of the other forms of active attack.
Replay involves the passive capture of a data unit and its subsequent retransmission to produce an unauthorized effect.
Modification of messages simply means that some portion of a legitimate message is altered or that messages are delayed or reordered, to produce an unauthorized effect.
 The denial of service prevents or inhibits the normal use or management of communication facilities.

1.Explain about transposition techniques?
            All the substitution techniques involve the substitution of a cipher text symbol for a plaintext symbol. A very different kind of mapping is achieved by performing some sort of permutation on the plaintext letters. This technique is referred to as a transposition cipher.
            The simplest such cipher is of the rail fence technique, in which the plaintext is written down as a sequence of diagonals and then read off as a sequence of rows. For example, to encipher the message “meet me after the toga party” with a rail fence of depth 2, we write the following:
                        m   e   m   a   t   r   h   t   g   p   r   y
                            e   t     e   f   e   t   e   o   a   a   t
The encrypted message is
                        MEMATRHTGPRYETEFETEOAAT
This sort of thing would be trivial to cryptanalyze. A more complex scheme is to write the message in a rectangle, row by row, and read off the message off, column by column, but permute the order of the columns. The order of the columns then becomes the key to the algorithm. For example,

            Key:           4    3    1    2   5    6    7
            Plaintext:   a     t     t    a    c    k    p
                              o     s     t   p    o    n    e
                              d     u    n   t     i     l     t
                              w    o    a   m   x    y    z
            Cipher text: TNNAAPTMTSUOAODWCOIXKNLYPETZ

A pure transposition cipher is easily recognized because it has the same letter frequencies as the original plaintext. For the type columnar transposition, cryptanalysis is fairly straightforward and involves laying out the cipher text in a matrix and playing around with column positions. Diagram and triagram frequency tables can be useful.
The transposition cipher can be made significantly more secure by performing more than one stage of transposition. The result is a more complex permutation that is not easily reconstructed. Thus, if the foregoing message is re-encrypted using the same algorithm,

            Key:           4    3    1    2   5   6    7
            Plaintext:   t     t     n    a   a    p    t
                              m   t     s    u    o   a    o
                              d    w   c    o    i    x    k
                              n    l     y    p   e    t    z
            Cipher text:   NSCYAUOPTTWLTMDNAOIEPAXTTOKZ

To visualize the result of this double transposition, designate the letters in the original plaintext message by the numbers designating their position. Thus, with 28 letters in the message, the original sequence of letters is

01     02   03   04   05   06   07   08   09   10   11   12   13   14
15   16   17   18   19   20   21   22   23   24   25   26   27   28
           
            After the first transposition we have
       
 03   10   17   24   04   11   18   25   02   09   16   23   01   08
15    22   05   12   19   26   06   13   20   27   07    14   21   28

which has somewhat a regular structure. But after the second transposition , we have

 17   09   05   27   24   16   12   07   10   02   22   20   03   25
 15   13   04   23   19   14   11   01   26   21   18    08   06   28
This is much less structured permutation and is much more difficult to cryptanalyze.


2.Write short notes on Steganography
                        The methods of stegonagraphy conceal the existence of the message, whereas the methods of cryptography render the message unintelligible to outsiders by various transformations of the text. A simple form of steganography, but one that is time consuming is one in which an arrangement of words or letters within an apparently innocuous text spells out the real message.
      Some of the other techniques are:
Ø      Character marking: Selected letters of printed or typewritten text are overwritten in pencil. The marks are ordinarily not visible unless the paper is held at an angle to bright light.
Ø      Invisible Ink: A number of substances can be used for writing but leave no visible traces until heat or some chemical is applied on the paper.
Ø      Pin punctures: Small pin punctures on selected letters are ordinarily not visible unless the paper is held up in front of a light.
Ø      Typewriter correction ribbon: Used between lines typed with a black ribbon, the results of typing with the correction are visible only under a strong light.

 For example, The Kodak Photo CD format’s maximum resolution is 2048 by 3072 pixels with each pixel containing 24 bits of RGB color information. The least significant bit of each 24-bit pixel can be changed without greatly affecting the quality of the image. The result is that we can hide a 2.3-megabyte message in a single digital snapshot.
            The advantage of steganography is that it can be employed by parties who have something to lose should the fact of their secret communication be discovered.
            Steganography has a number of drawbacks when compared to encryption. It requires a lot of overhead information to hide relatively few bits of information.

          
1.Briefly describe about the Strength of DES?
              With a key length of 56 bits, there are 256 possible Keys, Which is approximately 7.2* 1016 Keys. Thus, on the face of it, a brute-force attack appears impractical. Assuming that, on average half the key space has to be searched, a single machine performing one DES encryption per microsecond would take more than a thousand years to break the cipher
                   However, the assumption of one encryption per microsecond is overly conservative. As far back as1977, Diffie and hellman postulated that the technology existed to built a parallel machine with 1 million encryption devices, each of which could perform one encryption per microsecond. This would bring the average search time down to about 10 hours. The authors estimated that the cost would be about $20                            million in 1977 dollars.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
                     DES finally and definitively proved insure in July 1988, when the electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) announced that it had broken a DEF encryption using a              special-purpose “DES cracker” machine that was built for less than $250,000. The attack took less than three days. The EFF has published a detailed description of the machine, enabling others to build their own cracker. And, of course, hard ware
prices will continue to drop as speeds increase, making DES virtually Worthless.   

             It is important to note that there is more to a key-search attack than simply running through all possible keys. Unless known plaintext is provided the analyst must be able to recognize plaintext as plaintext   .If the message is just plaintext in English,
then the result pops out easily, although the task of recognizing English would have to be automated. If the text message has been compressed before encryption, then recognition is more difficult. And if the message is some more general type of data, such as numerical file, and this has been compressed, the problem becomes more difficult to automate, the supplement the Brute-force  approach, some degree of knowledge about the expected plaintext is needed, and the handsome means of automatically distinguishing plaintext from garble is also needed. The EEF approach addresses this issue as well and introduces some automated techniques that would be effective in many context.

The Nature of DES Algorithm

          Another concern is the possibility that the cryptanalysis is possible by exploiting the characteristics of the DES algorithm. The focus of concern has been on the eight substitution tables, or S-boxes that are used in each iteration. Because the design criteria for these boxes, and indeed for the entire algorithm, were not made public, there is a suspicion that the boxes were constructed in such a way that  cryptanalysis is possible for an opponent who knows the weaknesses in the S-boxes. This assertion is tantalizing, and over the years a number of regularities and unexpected behaviors of the s-boxes have been discovered. Despite this no one has so far succeeded in discovering the supposed fatal weaknesses in the s-boxes.


Timing Attacks

              
           A timing attack is one in which information about the key or plaintext is obtained by observing how long it takes a given implementation to perform decryptions on various cipher texts. A timing attack exploits the facts that the encryption and decryption algorithm often takes slightly different amounts of time on different inputs. report on an approach that yields the Hamming weight of the secret key. This is the long way from knowing the actual key, but it is an intriguing first step. DES appears to be fairly resistant to a successful timing attack but suggest some avenues to explore.
                                           
2.Briefly explain about DES design criteria?

                       

            The criteria used in the design of DES, focused on the design of the S-boxes  and on the P function that takes the output of the S boxes .The criteria for the S-boxes are as follows:
  1. No output bit of any S-box should be too close a linear function of the input bits. Specifically,if we select any output bit and any subset  of the six input bits, the fraction of inputs for which this output bit equals the XOR of these input bits should not be close to 0 or 1, but rather should be near ½.
  2. Each row of an S-box should include all 16 possible output bit combinations.
  3. if two inputs to an S-box differ in exactly one bit, the outputs must differ I atleast two bits.
4.If two inputs to an S-box differ in their first two bits and are identical in their last two bits, the two outputs must not be the same.
5.For any non zero 6-bit difference between inputs, no more than8 of the 32 pairs of inputs exhibiting that difference may result in the same output difference.
6.This is a criterion similar to the previous one, but for the case of three S boxes.
Coppersmith pointed out that the first criterion in the preceding list was needed because the S-boxes are the only nonlinear part of DES. If the S-boxes were linear ,the entire algorithm would be linear and easily broken. We have seen this phenomenon with the Hill Cipher, which is linear. The remaining criteria were primarily aimed at thwarting differencial cryptanalysis and at providing good confusion properties.
The criteria for the permutation P are as follows:
  1. The four output bits from each S-box at round I are distributed so that two of them affect “middle bits” of round(I+1) and the other two affect end bits. The end bits are the two left-hand bits and the two righthand bits, which are shared with adjacent S-boxes.
  2. The four output bits from each S-box affect six different S-boxes on the next round, and no two affect the same S-box.
  3. For two S-boxes j,k, if an output bit from Sj, affects a middle bit of Sk on the next round,then an output bit from Sk cannot affect a middle bit of Sj. This implies that for j=k, an output bit from Sj must not affect a middle bit of Sj.

These criteria are intended to increase the diffusion of the algorithm.

Key management


There are two aspects to the use of public-key cryptography
 in this regard:
*            The distribution of public keys
*            The use of public-key encryption to distribution secret  keys.

Distribution of public keys


*      Four general categories of schemes for the distribution of public keys.
*      Public announcement
*      Publicly available directory
*      Public-key authority
*      Public-key certificates







Public announcement of public keys
         
                                                            KUa              KUb






 
Oval:     A                                      KUa      KUb     


Oval:      B
 
        .                                        .
        .                                        .                .
                                     .                                        .
            KUb
                                                        KUa            



                Here the public-key is public one. For example PGP.
Although this approach is convenient, it has a weakness that anyone can forge such a public announcement.

Publicly available directory
     It has the following elements:
*      The authority maintains a directory with a entry for each participant.
*      Each participant registers a public key with the directory authority.
*      A participant may replace the existing key with a new one at any time.
*      Periodically, the authority publishes the entire directory or updates to the directory.
*      Participants could also access   the directory electronically.


 







                                KUa
                                                                                                KUb



Oval:     AOval:      B                                                                                                





Public-key authority


 






         (1) Request||timer1                   (5) EKRauth [kua||Request||Time2]


               (2) EKRauth [Kub||Request ||Time1]                                 (4)Request||Time2]





Oval: Responder
B
 
Oval: Initiator
A
   
             (3) EKUa [Ida||N1]               
                              (6)EKUa[N1||N2]
                  
                       (7) EKUb [N2]

It has the following steps:

*      Time stamp message
*      Authority public key
*      A sends id of A and a nonce it B
*      B receives A’s public key
*      B sends a message to A
*      A returns N2 encrypted using B’s public key

 

Public-key certificates


         Certificate that can be used by participants to exchange keys without contacting a public-key authority.

Oval: Certificate authority  
Oval: BOval: A            



                               KUa                                                 KUb
                                                                                                         CB=EKRauth
                                       CA=EKRauth [Time1,IDA,KUa]                 [Time2,IDB,Kub]                                                                           



(1) CA
 


(2) CB
 
 
Public key distribution of secret keys
Simple secret key distribution


                                                    (1) KUa||IDA
 

                                            (2) EKUa [Ks]
 



1.A generate KUa, KRa and sends Kua and IDA
2.B generate ks and encrypts it using EKUa
3.A discards KUa and KRa
4.B discards KUa
5.Transaction using conventional methods

Secret key distribution with confidentiality and authentication

Oval: Responder
B
Oval: Initiator
A
                            (1)EKUb [N1||Ida]
(2                     (2)EKUa [N1||N2]
                                                        (3)EKUb[N2]
                                                        (4)EKUb [EKRa[ks]]



2.Diffie-Helman key exchange



*      Solution to problem of key agreement or key exchange in 1976
*      Two parties can agree on a symmetric key
*      Key can be used for encryption or decryption
*      Once parties agree on the key symmetric key encryption algorithm is used for confidential

Algorithm

*      Alice and Bob agree on two larges prime no.s n and g
*      Alice chooses large random no x and calculate
                  A=gx mod n
*       Alice send the no A to Bob
*      Bob independently chooses another large random integer y and calculate 
                        B=gy mod n
*      Bob sends B to Alice
*      Now A computes the secret key k1
           k1=Bx mod n
*      B computes the secret key k2
                 k2=Ax mod n
*      k1=k2=k symmetric key


1.Explain Message Authentication Code

 This technique assumes that two communicating parties A and B share a common key K.When A sends  a message to B it calculates the MAC as a function of the message and the key:MAC=CK{M),
Where,
M=input message
C=MAC function
K=shared secret key
MAC=message authentication code

The message plus the MAC are transmitted to the recipient. The recipient performs the same calculation on the received message to generate a new MAC.The received MAC is compared to the calculated MAC.If only the sender and receiver know the secret key,if the received MAC matches the calculated MAC , then
1.The receiver is assured that the message has not been altered.
2.The receiver is assured that the message is from the alleged sender.
3.If the message includes a sequence number then the receiver is assured of the proper sequence.
 The MAC function need not be reversible.Usually, it is a many-to-one function.
If there are N possible messages then an n bit  MAC is used where N>>2n  and there are 2k possible keys where the key has k bits.
 For example, if we  are using 100 bit messages then there are  2100  different messages and if a 10 bit MAC is used there are 210 different MACs. On an average each MAC value is generated by a total of (2100/210)=290 different messages. If  a  5bit key is used there are 25=32 different mappings from a set of messages to a set of MAC values.
Usually two separate keys are used each of which is shared by the sender and receiver.The message is calculated with the message as input and is then concatenated to the message.The entire block is then encrypted.


K1
 
Oval: C
COMPARE
 
DESTINATION
 


The fig shows the basic uses of MAC.

MAC is used when:
1.There are a number of applications in which the same message is broadcast to many destinations.
2.When there exchanges where there is heavy load on one side and there is no time to decrypt.
3.For authentication of a computer in plain text.
 4.When it is not needed to keep messages secret but it is important to provide authentication.
5.Because separation of authentication and confidentiality provides architectural flexibility.
6.When users wish to prolong the period of protection beyond the time of reception and yet allow processing of message contents.
MAC does not provide digital signature because both sender and receiver share the same key.


REQUIREMENTS OF MAC:
Assume that the opponent knows the MAC function C but does not know the key K.Then the MAC function should have the following properties:
1.If an opponent observes M and CK(M), it should be computationally infeasible for the opponent to construct a message M' such that CK(M')=CK(M).
2.CK(M) should be uniformly distributed in the sense that for randomly chosen messages M and M', the probability that CK(M)=CK(M') IS 2-n, where n is the number of bits in the MAC.
3.Let M' be equal to some known transformation on M.That is, M'=f(M).For example, f may involve inverting one or more specific bits.In that case,Pr[CK(M)=CK(M')]=2-n.


2.Hash Function

                            A variation on the message authentication code is the one-way hash function. As with the message authentication code, a hash function accepts a variable size message M as input and produces a fixed-size output , referred to as hash code H(M).
                            A variety of ways in which hash code can be used to provide message authentication, as follows:
*  The message plus concatenated hash code is encrypted using symmetric encryption.
*  Only the hash code is encrypted using symmetric encryption.
*  Only the hash code is encrypted using the public-key encryption and using the sender’s private key.
*  If confidentiality as well  as a digital signature is desired ,then the message plus the public key encrypted hash code can be encrypted using a symmetric secret key.
*  This technique uses a hash function but no encryption for message authentication.
*  Confidentiality can be added to the approach of(e) by encrypting the entire message plus the hash code.


          A   ----à  B: M || Ck(M)
·         Provides authentication
            ---- Only A and B share K
(a)Message authentication
----------------------------------------------------------------               

          A  ----à B: Ek2[M || Ck1(M)
·         Provides authentication
                 ----- Only A and B share K1
·         Provides confidentiality
                       Only A and B share K2
             (b)Message authentication and confidentiality:
                   authentication tied to plain text
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
             A -----à B:EX2[M] CK1(CK2[M2])
·         Provides authentication
       ------- Using  K1
·         Provides confidentiality
        -------Using K2
               (c)Message authentication and confidentiality
                    authentication tied to cipher text.





 
 







                        













When confidentiality is not required , methods (b) and (c) have an advantage over those that encrypt the message in that less computation is required


1.Write about the AH and ESP associated with IPSec

AUTHENTICATION HEADER
           
            The authentication header provides support for data integrity and authentication of IP packets. The data integrity feature ensures that undetected modification to a packet’s content in transit is not possible. The authentication feature enables an end system or network to authenticate the  the user or application and filter traffic accordingly.
Authentication is based on the use of a message authentication code(MAC)
            The authentication header consists of the following fields.
  • Next header(8 bits):Identifies the type of header immediately following this header.
  • Payload length(8 bits):Length of authentication header in 32-bit words,minus 2.
  • Reserved(16 bits):For future use.
  • Security parameters index(32 bits):Identifies a security association.
  • Sequence number(32 bits):A monotonically increasing counter value.
  • Authentication data(variable):A variable-length field that contains the Integrity Check Value.

                          
Anti-replay service
            A replay attack is one in which an attacker obtains a copy of an authenticated packet and later transmits it to the intended destination. The sequence number field is designed to thwart such attacks.

Integrity check value
            The authentication data field holds a value referred to as the integrity check value. The ICV is a message authentication code or a truncated version of a code produced by a MAC algorithm.

Transport and tunnel modes
            These are the two ways in which the IPSec authentication service can be used.In one case authentication is provided directly between a server and client work stations;the work station can be either on the same network as the server or on an external network.As long as the work station and the server share a protected secret key, the authentication process is secure.This case uses a transport mode SA. In the other case a remote work station authenticates itself to the corporate firewall, either for access to the entire internal network or because the requested server does not support the authentication feature. This case uses a tunnel mode SA.
            For transport mode AH using IPv4, the AH is inserted after the original IP header and before the IP payload.
            In the context of IPv6, the AH is viewed as an end-to-end payload;that is it is not examined or processed by intermediate routers. Therefore  the AH appears after the IPv6 base header and the hop-by-hop,routing and fragment extension headers.
            For tunnel mode AH the original IP packet is authenticated, and the AH is inserted between the original IP header and a new outer IP header
Orig IP hdr
TCP
Data

         IPv4       



Orig IP hdr
Extension hdrs if present
TCP
Data

IPv6
Orig IP hdr
AH
TCP
Data


IPv4

IPv6
Orig IP hdr
hop-by-hop , dest,routing,fragment
AH
dest
TCP
data
New IP hdr
AH
Orig IP hdr
TCP
Data


IPv4




IPv6
New IP hdr
Ext hdrs
AH
Orig IP hdr
Ext hdrs
TCP
data


ENCAPSULATING SECURITY PAYLOAD

            The encapsulating security payload provides confidentiality services , including confidentiality of message contents and limited traffic flow confidentiality.As an optional feature , ESP can also provide the same authentication services as AH.

ESP Format
ESP packet contains the following fields

  • Security parameters index(32 bits):Identifies a security association.
  • Sequence number(32 bits):A monotonically increasing counter value;this provides an anti-replay function,as discussed for AH.
  • Payload data(variable):This is a transport level segment(transport mode)or IP packet(tunnel mode)that is protected by encryption.
  • Padding(0-255 bytes):The padding field serves several purposes:
    • If an encryption algorithm requires the plain text to be a multiple of some number of bytes  the padding field is used to expand the plain text to the required length.
    • The ESP format requires that the cipher text must be an integer multiple of 32 bits. The padding field is used to assure this alignment.
    • Additional padding may be added to provide partial traffic flow confidentiality by concealing the actual length of the payload.
  • Pad length(8 bits):Indicates the nuber of pad bytes immediately preceding this field.
  • Next header(8 bits):Identifies the type of data contained in the payload data field.
  • Authentication data(variable):A variable length field that contains the Integrity Check Value computed over the ESP packet minus the authentication data field.


                                 


Transport and tunnel modes
            Figure shows the two ways in which IPsec ESP services can be used.Hosts on the internal networks use the internet for the transport of data but do not interact with the other internet based hosts. By terminating the tunnels at the security gateway to each internal network the configuration allows the hosts to avoid implementing the security capability . The former technique is supported by a transport mode SA, while the latter technique uses a tunnel mode SA.

Transport mode ESP
            Transport mode ESP is used to encrypt and optionally authenticate the data carried by IP. For this mode using IPv4, the ESP header is inserted into the IP packet immediately prior to the transport layer header and an ESP trailer is placed after the IP packet.
            In the context of IPv6, ESP is viewed as an end-to-end payload ; that is it is not examined or processed by intermediate routers. Therefore the ESP header appears after the IPv6 base header  and the hop-by-hop, routing and fragment extension headers.The destination option extension could appear before or after the ESP header, depending on the semantics required.For IPv6 encryption covers the entire transport level segment plus the ESP trailer plus the destination options extension header if it occurs after the ESP header.
IPv4
Orig IP hdr
ESP hdr
TCP
data
ESP trlr
ESP auth

IPv6
orig IP hdr
hop-by-hop , dest,routing,fragment
ESP hdr
dest
TCP
data
ESP trlr
ESP auth


Tunnel mode ESP
            Tunnel mode ESP is  used to encrypt the entire IP packet . For this mode the ESP header is prefixed to the packet and then the packet plus the ESP trailer is encrypted. This method can be used to counter the traffic analysis.
IPv4
New IP hdr
ESP hdr
Orig IP hdr
TCP
data
ESP trlr
ESP auth


IPv6
new IP hdr
Ext hdrs
ESP hdr
Orig IP hdr
Ext hdrs
TCP
data
ESP trlr
ESP auth


2.Write about  how security associations can be combined.

            An individual SA can implement either the AH or ESP  protocol but not both. Sometimes a particular traffic flow will call for the services provided by both AH and ESP.Multiple SA must be employed for the same traffic flow to achieve the desired IP services. The term security association bundle refers to a sequence of SAs through which traffic must be  processed to provide a desired set of IPsec services. The SAs in a bundle may terminate at different endpoints or at the same endpoints.
            Security associations may be combined into bundle in two types.
  • Transport adjacency: Refers to applying more than one security protocol to  the same IP packet without invoking tunneling.
  • Iterated tunneling: Refers to the application of multiple layers of security protocols effected through IP tunneling.

 The two approaches can be combined for example by having a transport SA between hosts travel part of the way through a tunnel SA between security gateways

Authentication plus confidentiality
            Encryption  and authentication can be combined inorder to transmit  an IP packet that has both confidentiality and authentication between hosts.

            ESp with authentication option
                        In this approach the user first applies ESP to the data to be protected and the appends the authentication data field. There are two sub cases.
            Transport mode ESP:Authentication and encryption apply to the IP payload delivered to the host but the IP header is not protected.
            Tunnel mode ESP:Authentication applies to the entire IP packet delivered  to the outer IP destination address and authentication is performed at that destination.

For both the cases authentication applies to cipher text rather than the plain text.

            Transport adjacency
                        Another way to apply authentication after the encryption is to use two bundle transport SAs with the inner being an ESP SA and the outer being an AH SA . In this case ESP is used without its authentication option. Because the inner SA is a transport SA, encryption is applied to the IP payload. The resulting packet consists of an IP header followe  by an ESP. AH is then applied in the transport mode so that authenticayion covers the ESP plus the original IP header  except for mutable fields.

            Transport-Tunnel bundle
                        One approach  to applying authentication before encryption between two hosts is to use a bundle consisting of an inner AH transport SA an outer ESP tunnel SA. IN this case authentication is applied to the IP payload plus the IP header except for the mutable fields. The resulting IP packet is then processed in the tunnel mode by the ESP; the result is that the entire authenticated inner packet is encrypted and a new outer IP header is added.

Basic combinations of security associations

            In case1 all security is provided between end systems that implement  IPsec. For any two end systems to communicate via an SA they must share the appropriate  secret keys. The following are among the possible combinations.
  • AH in transport mode.
  • ESp in transport mode.
  • AH followed by ESP in transport mode.
  • Any one of a,b, or c inside an AH or ESP in tunnel mode.
For case2 security is provided only between gateways and no hosts implement IPsec.

Case3 builds on case2 by adding end-to-end security. The gateway –to-gateway tunnel provides either authentication or confidentiality or both for all traffic between end systems. When the gateway-to-gateway tunnel is ESP it also provides a limited form of traffic confidentiality.

Case4 provides support for a remote host that uses the internet to reach an organization’s firewall and then to gain access to some server or workstation behind the firewall. Only tunnel mode is required between the remote host and the firewall .













7


1.Explain S/MIME?

S/MIME

               Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension is a security enhancement to the MIME Internet e-mail format standard, based on technology from RSA Data Security.  It is ability to sign and/or encrypt messages.

RFC 822

                RFC 822 defines a format for text messages that are sent using electronic mail.
It has been the standard for Internet-based text message and remains in common use.  In the RFC822 context, messages are viewed as having an envelope and contents.  The envelope contains whatever information needed to accomplish transmission and delivery.  The contents compose the object to be delivered to the recipient.
MIME
                              Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) is an extension to the RFC 822 framework that is intended to address some of the problems and limitations of the use of SMTP.
 Some of limitations: -
      1.It cannot transmit executable files or folders.
      2.SMTP servers may reject, mail message over a certain size.
  1. Some SMTP implementations do not adhere completely to the SMTP standards defined in RFC 821. Common problems include
*  Deletion, addition, or reordering of carriage return and linefeed
*  Truncating or wrapping lines longer than 76 characters
*  Removal of trailing white space
*  Padding of lines in a message to the same length
*  Conversion of tab characters into multiple space characters

The MIME specification includes the following elements:

1.Five message header fields are defined which may be included in and RFC 822 header.
2.A numbers of content formats are defined, thus standardizing representations that support multimedia electronic mail.
3.Transfer encodings are defined that enable the conversion of any content format into a form that is protected from alteration by the mail system.



S/MIME Functionality

  It offers ability to sign and/or encrypt messages.

Functions

*  Enveloped Data: This consists of encrypted content of any type and encrypted content encryption keys for one or more recipients.
*  Signed Data: A digital signature is formed by taking the message digest of the content to be signed and then encrypting that with the private key of signer. The content plus signature are the encoded using base64 encoding.
*  Clear-signed data: As with assigned data, a digital signature of the content is formed. In this case only the digital signature is encoded using base64.
*  Signed and enveloped date: Signed-only and encrypted-only entities may be nested, so that encrypted data may be signed and signed data or clear-signed data may be signed and signed data or clear-signed data may be encrypted.

     Cryptographic algorithms
Function
Requirement

Create a message digest to be used in
Forming a digital signature

Encrypt session key for transmission
with message
MUST support SHA-1.
Receiver SHOULD support md5 for backward compatibility
Sending and receiving agents MUST support Diffie-Hellman.
Sending agents Should support RSA encryption with key sizes 51 bits to 1024 bits.
    


MUST: The definition is an absolute requirement of the specification.  An implementation must include this feature or function to be in conformance with the specification.
SHOULD: There may exist valid reasons in particular circumstances to ignore this feature or function, but it is recommended that an implementation include this feature of function.

                S/MIME incorporates three public-key algorithms.  The Digital Signature Standard (DSS) is the preferred algorithm for digital signature.  S/MIME use a variant of Diffie-Hellman that does provide encryption/decryption.
                    The S/MIME specification includes a discussion of the procedure for deciding which content encryption algorithm to use.

A sending agent should follow the following rules, in the following order:

  1. The sending agent SHOULD choose the first capability on the list that it is capable of using.
  2. If the sending agent has no such list of capabilities from an intended recipient but has received one or more messages from the recipient, then the outgoing message SHOULD use the same encryption algorithm as was used on the last signed and encrypted message received from that intended recipient.
  3. If the sending agent has no acknowledge about the decryption capabilities of the intended recipient and is willing to risk that the recipient may not be able to decrypt the message, then the sending agent SHOULD use tripleDES.
  4. 4. If the sending agent has no knowledge about the decryption capabilities of the intended recipient and is not willing to risk that the recipient may not be able to decrypt the message, then the sending agent MUST use RC2/40.

Securing a MIME Entity

     S/MIME   secures a MIME entity with a signature, encryption, or both.  A MIME entity may be an entire message, or if the MIME content type is multipart, then a MIME  entity is one or more of the subparts of the message.  Then the MIME entity plus some security related date, such as algorithm identifies and certificated, are processed by S/MIME to produce what is known as a PKCS object.  A PKCS object is then treated as message content and wrapped in MIME.

S/MIME Certificate Processing

       S/MIME uses public-key certificates.  The key-management scheme used by S/MIME is in some ways a hybrid between a strict X.509 certification hierarchy and PGP’s web of trust.  As with the PGP model, S/MIME managers and/or users must configure each client with a list of trusted keys and with certificate revocation lists.  That is the responsibility is local for maintaining the certificated needed to verify incoming signatures ad to encrypt outgoing messages.  On the other hand, the certificates are signed by certification authorities.

An S/MIME user has several key management functions to perform:

  1. 1.Key generation: Each key pair MUST be generated from a good source of nondeterministic random input and be protected in a secure fashion.
  2. 2.Registration: A user’s public key must be registered with a certification authority in order to receive an X.509 public key certificate.
  3. 3.Certificate storage and retrieval: A user requires access to local list of certificated in order to verify incoming signatures and to encrypt outgoing messages.


2. PRETTY  GOOD   PRIVACY


                  PGP provides a confidentiality and authentication service that can be used for electronic mail and file storage applications. Phil Zimmermann has done the following:
1. Selected the best available cryptographic as building blocks
2. Integrated these algorithms into a general purpose application that is independent of operating system and processor and that is based on a small set of easy to use commands
3. Made the package and its documentation including the source code, freely available via internet ,bulletin boards ,and commercial networks such as AOL
4. Entered into an agreement with a company to provide a fully compatible, low cost commercial version of PGP.

PGP has grown explosively and now widely used. A number of reasons can be cited for this growth,
1. It is available free worldwide in versions that run on a variety of platforms,including windows ,UNIX,Macintosh,and many more.
2. It is based on algorithms that have survived extensive public review and are considered extremely secure.
3. It has a wide range of applicability from corporations that wish to select and enforce a standardized scheme for encrypting files and messages to individuals who wish to communicate securely with others worldwide over the internet and other networks .
4. It was not developed by ,nor is it controlled by, any governmental or standard organization
5. PGP is now on an internet standards track.


Notation


Ks =Session key used in symmetric encryption scheme
KRa=Private key of user A used in public key encryption scheme.
KUa= Public key of user A, used in public key encryption scheme
EP = Public key encryption
DP = Public key decryption
EC = Symmetric encryption
DC = Symmetric decryption
H = Hash function
|| = Concatenation
Z = compression using ZIP algorithm
COMPARE

 
R64 = Conversion to radix 64 ASCII format R64 = Conversion to radix 64 ASCII format DP
COM[ARE
 
DP
 

Operational Description

   PGP provides five services


*  Authentication – DSS/SHA or RSA/SHA
*  Confidentiality – CAST or IDEA or 3DES Diffe or RSA
*  Compression –ZIP
*  Email Compatibility – Radix 64 conversion
*  Segmentation 

Authentication

    1. The sender creates a message
    2.  SHA-1 is used to generate a 160 bit hash code of the message 
3. The hash code is encrypted with RSA using the sender’s private key,and the result is prepended to the message
4. The receiver uses RSA with the sender’s public key to decrypt and recover the hash code
5. The receiver generates a new hash code for the message and compares it with the decrypted hash code


Confidentiality


   1. The sender generates a message and random 128 bit number to be used as a session key for this message only
2. The message is encrypted ,using CAST -128  with the session key
3. The session key is encrypted with RSA with its private key to decrypt and recover the session key
4. The session key is used to decrypt the message
5.The receiver uses RSA with its private key to decrypt and recover the session key

Compression

1. The signature is generated before compression for 2 reasons
 a. It is preferable to sign an uncompreesed message so that one can store only the compressed message together with the signature for future verification
 b. Even if one were willing to generate dynamically a recompressed message for verification

2.The message encryption is applied after compression to strengthen cryptographic security


Email Compatibility

  When PGP is used , atleast part of the block to be transmitted is encrypted.If only the signature service is used then the message digest is encrypted.If the confidentiality service is used , the message plus signature are encrypted .Thus part or all of the resulting block consist of a stream of arbitrary 8 bit octets.



Segmentation and reassembly


  Email facilities often are restricted to a maximum message length.To accommodate this restriction PGP automatically subdivides the message that is too large into segments that are small enough to send via email


Cryptographic Keys and Key rings


1. A means of generating unpredictable session keys is needed
2. We would like to allow a user to have multiple public-key/private-key pairs
 The user may wish to change his or her key pair from time to time.Also the recipient will know only the old private key until an update reaches them
3. Each PGP entity must maintain a file of its own public/private key pairs as well as a file of public keys of correspondence

Key Rings


Private Key Rings
*  Timestamp: The date/time when this key pair was generated
*  Key ID: The least significant 64 bits of the public key for the entry
*  Public key: The public key portion of the pair
*  Private key: The private key portion of the pair
*  User ID: is the user’s email address
                                              
Public key Rings
*  Timestamp:The date/time when the entry was generated
*  Key ID: The least significant 64 bits of the public key for this entry
*  Public key: the public keys for this entry
*  UserID: Identifies the owner of this key
*  PGP MESSAGE GENERATION
* 








Public key ring
 
 
||

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            *










1.Differences between version4 and version5


Version4 had the following  environmental shortcomings:
1.Ecryption system dependence:
It requires the use of DES
2.Internet protocol dependence:
requires the use of internet protocol addresses
3.Message byte ordering:
Sender of a message employs a byte ordering of its own choice
4.Ticket lifetime
Lifetime values are encrypted in an 8 bit quantity.
5.Authentication forwarding:
It does not allow credentials issued to one client to be forwarded to some other host and used by some other client.
6.Interrealm authentication:
Interoperability among N realms requires the order of N2 kerberos to kerberos relationships.

Apart from these it had the following technical deficiencies:
1.Double encryption
The tickets provided to clients are encrypted twice.
2.PCBC encryption
Encryption makes use of a nonstandard mode of DES known as Propagating Block Chaining(PCBC)
3.Session keys
each ticket includes a session key that is used by the client.
4.Password attacks
Both versions are vulnerable to a password attack.
These are overcome in version 5.




1.Differences between version4 and version5


Version4 had the following  environmental shortcomings:
1.Ecryption system dependence:
It requires the use of DES
2.Internet protocol dependence:
requires the use of internet protocol addresses
3.Message byte ordering:
Sender of a message employs a byte ordering of its own choice
4.Ticket lifetime
Lifetime values are encrypted in an 8 bit quantity.
5.Authentication forwarding:
It does not allow credentials issued to one client to be forwarded to some other host and used by some other client.
6.Interrealm authentication:
Interoperability among N realms requires the order of N2 kerberos to kerberos relationships.

Apart from these it had the following technical deficiencies:
1.Double encryption
The tickets provided to clients are encrypted twice.
2.PCBC encryption
Encryption makes use of a nonstandard mode of DES known as Propagating Block Chaining(PCBC)
3.Session keys
each ticket includes a session key that is used by the client.
4.Password attacks
Both versions are vulnerable to a password attack.
These are overcome in version 5.


2.Version5 authentication dialogue
It consists of
1.user ID and TGS
2.Realm
 Indicates realm of a user
3.Options
Used to request that certain flags be set in the return ticket
4.Times
Used by the client to request the time settings.
5.Nonce
A random value that is repeated in the message to assure that the response is fresh.

The client server authentication exchange includes the features:
Subkey:Client’s choice of an encryption key for an application’s session.
Sequence number:An optional field that specifies the starting sequence number to beused by the server for messages to the client.
TICKET FLAGS that are used include:
INITIAL
This ticket was issued by the AS protocol and not based on the ticket granting ticket.
PRE-AUTHENT
During initial authentication the client was authenticated by the KDC.
HW-AUTHENT
The protocol employed for initial authentication required the use of hardware.
RENEWABLE
Tells TGS that this ticket can be used to obtain a replacement ticket
MAY-POSTDATE
Tells TGS that a postdated ticket may be issued based on this ticket granting ticket.
POSTDATED
Indicates that this ticket has been postdated
INVALID
This ticket is invalid and must be validated by the KDC.
PROXIABLE
Tells TGS that a new service granting ticket with a new network address may be issued. based on this presented ticket.
PROXY
Indicates that this ticket is a proxy.
FORWARDABLE
Tells TGS that a new ticket granting ticket with a new network address may be issued. based on this ticket granting ticket
FORWARDED
Indicates that this ticket has either been forwarded or was issued based on authentication involving a forwarded ticket granting ticket.




























                                                                                                                                          

     

             










Ans:-- INTRODUCTION: 
The term ‘cyber crime’ is a misnomer. This term has nowhere been defined in any statute /Act passed or enacted by the Indian Parliament. The concept of cyber crime is not radically different from the concept of conventional crime. Both include conduct whether act or omission, which cause breach of rules of law and counterbalanced by the sanction of the state.
Before evaluating the concept of cyber crime it is obvious that the concept of conventional crime be discussed and the points of similarity and deviance between both these forms may be discussed.
 CONVENTIONAL CRIME-
 Crime is a social and economic phenomenon and is as old as the human society. Crime is a legal concept and has the sanction of the law. Crime or an offence is “a legal wrong that can be followed by criminal proceedings which may result into punishment.”(1) The hallmark of criminality is that, it is breach of the criminal law. Per Lord Atkin “the criminal quality of an act cannot be discovered by reference to any standard but one: is the act prohibited with penal consequences”. (2)
 A crime may be said to be any conduct accompanied by act or omission prohibited by law and consequential breach of which is visited by penal consequences.
 CYBER CRIME
 Cyber crime is the latest and perhaps the most complicated problem in the cyber world. “Cyber crime may be said to be those species, of which, genus is the conventional crime, and where either the computer is an object or subject of the conduct constituting crime” (13). “Any criminal activity that uses a computer either as an instrumentality, target or a means for perpetuating further crimes comes within the ambit of cyber crime”(12) 
A generalized definition of cyber crime may be “ unlawful acts wherein the computer is either a tool or target or both”(3) The computer may be used as a tool in the following kinds of activity- financial crimes, sale of illegal articles, pornography, online gambling, intellectual property crime, e-mail spoofing, forgery, cyber defamation, cyber stalking. The computer may however be target for unlawful acts in the following cases- unauthorized access to computer/ computer system/ computer networks, theft of information contained in the electronic form, e-mail bombing, data didling, salami attacks, logic bombs, Trojan attacks, internet time thefts, web jacking, theft of computer system, physically damaging the computer system.
 DISTINCTION BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL AND CYBER CRIME-
 There is apparently no distinction between cyber and conventional crime. However on a deep introspection we may say that there exists a fine line of demarcation between the conventional and cyber crime, which is appreciable. The demarcation lies in the involvement of the medium in cases of cyber crime. The sine qua non for cyber crime is that there should be an involvement, at any stage, of the virtual cyber medium.

REASONS FOR CYBER CRIME:

Hart in his work “ The Concept of Law” has said ‘human beings are vulnerable so rule of law is required to protect them’. Applying this to the cyberspace we may say that computers are vulnerable so rule of law is required to protect and safeguard them against cyber crime. The reasons for the vulnerability of computers may be said to be:
1.      Capacity to store data in comparatively small space-
 The computer has unique characteristic of storing data in a very small space. This affords to remove or derive information either through physical or virtual medium makes it much more easier. 
  1. Easy to access-
The problem encountered in guarding a computer system from unauthorised access is that there is every possibility of breach not due to human error but due to the complex technology. By secretly implanted logic bomb, key loggers that can steal access codes, advanced voice recorders; retina imagers etc. that can fool biometric systems and bypass firewalls can be utilized to get past many a security system.
3.Complex-
The computers work on operating systems and these operating systems in turn are composed of millions of codes. Human mind is fallible and it is not possible that there might not be a lapse at any stage. The cyber criminals take advantage of these lacunas and penetrate into the computer system.
4.Negligence-
 Negligence is very closely connected with human conduct. It is therefore very probable that while protecting the computer system there might be any negligence, which in turn provides a cyber criminal to gain access and control over the computer system.
5. Loss of evidence-
 Loss of evidence is a very common & obvious problem as all the data are routinely destroyed. Further collection of data outside the territorial extent also paralyses this system of crime investigation.
CYBER CRIMINALS:
The cyber criminals constitute of various groups/ category. This division may be justified on the basis of the object that they have in their mind. The following are the category of cyber criminals-
1. Children and adolescents between the age group of 6 – 18 years
The simple reason for this type of delinquent behaviour pattern in children is seen mostly due to the inquisitiveness to know and explore the things.  Other cognate reason may be to prove themselves to be outstanding amongst other children in their group. Further the reasons may be psychological even. E.g. the Bal Bharati (Delhi) case was the outcome of harassment of the delinquent by his friends.
2. Organised hackers-
These kinds of hackers are mostly organised together to fulfil certain objective. The reason may be to fulfil their political bias, fundamentalism, etc. The Pakistanis are said to be one of the best quality hackers in the world. They mainly target the Indian government sites with the purpose to fulfil their political objectives. Further the NASA as well as the Microsoft sites is always under attack by the hackers.
3.      Professional hackers / crackers –
Their work is motivated by the colour of money. These kinds of hackers are mostly employed to hack the site of the rivals and get credible, reliable and valuable information. Further they are ven employed to crack the system of the employer basically as a measure to make it safer by detecting the loopholes.
4.       Discontented employees-
  This group include those people who have been either sacked by their employer or are dissatisfied with their employer. To avenge they normally hack the system of their employee.
 MODE AND MANNER OF COMMITING CYBER CRIME:
  1. Unauthorized access to computer systems or networks / Hacking-
 This kind of offence is normally referred as hacking in the generic sense. However the framers of the information technology act 2000 have no where used this term so to avoid any confusion we would not interchangeably use the word hacking for ‘unauthorized access’ as the latter has wide connotation.
  1. Theft of information contained in electronic form-
This includes information stored in computer hard disks, removable storage media etc.  Theft may be either by appropriating the data physically or by tampering them through the virtual medium.
  1. Email bombing-
This kind of activity refers to sending large numbers of mail to the victim, which may be an individual or a company or even mail servers there by ultimately resulting into crashing. 
  1. Data diddling-
This kind of an attack involves altering raw data just before a computer processes it and then changing it back after the processing is completed. The electricity board faced similar problem of data diddling while the department was being computerised.
  1. Salami attacks-
 This kind of crime is normally prevalent in the financial institutions or for the purpose of committing financial crimes. An important feature of this type of offence is that the alteration is so small that it would normally go unnoticed. E.g. the Ziegler case wherein a logic bomb was introduced in the bank’s system, which deducted 10 cents from every account and deposited it in a particular account.
  1. Denial of Service attack-
The computer of the victim is flooded with more requests than it can handle which cause it to crash. Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack is also a type of denial of service attack, in which the offenders are wide in number and widespread. E.g. Amazon, Yahoo.
 7.    Virus / worm attacks-
 Viruses are programs that attach themselves to a computer or a file and then circulate themselves to other files and to other computers on a network. They usually affect the data on a computer, either by altering or deleting it. Worms, unlike viruses do not need the host to attach themselves to. They merely make functional copies of themselves and do this repeatedly till they eat up all the available space on a computer's memory. E.g. love bug virus, which affected at least 5 % of the computers of the globe. The losses were accounted to be $ 10 million. The world's most famous worm was the Internet worm let loose on the Internet by Robert Morris sometime in 1988.  Almost brought development of Internet to a complete halt.
8.     Logic bombs-
 These are event dependent programs. This implies that these programs are created to do something only when a certain event (known as a trigger event) occurs. E.g. even some viruses may be termed logic bombs because they lie dormant all through the year and become active only on a particular date (like the Chernobyl virus).
  1.   Trojan attacks-
   This term has its origin in the word ‘Trojan horse’. In software field this means an unauthorized programme, which passively gains control over another’s system by representing itself as an authorised programme. The most common form of installing a Trojan is through e-mail. E.g. a Trojan was installed in the computer of a lady film director in the U.S. while chatting. The cyber criminal through the web cam installed in the computer obtained her nude photographs. He further harassed this lady.
  1.  Internet time thefts-
Normally in these kinds of thefts the Internet surfing hours of the victim are used up by another person. This is done by gaining access to the login ID and the password. E.g. Colonel Bajwa’s case- the Internet hours were used up by any other person. This was perhaps one of the first reported cases related to cyber crime in India. However this case made the police infamous as to their lack of understanding of the nature of cyber crime.
11.  Web jacking-
         This term is derived from the term hi jacking. In these kinds of offences the hacker gains access and control over the web site of another. He may even mutilate or change the information on the site. This may be done for fulfilling political objectives or for money. E.g. recently the site of MIT (Ministry of Information Technology) was hacked by the Pakistani hackers and some obscene matter was placed therein. Further the site of Bombay crime branch was also web jacked. Another case of web jacking is that of the ‘gold fish’ case. In this case the site was hacked and the information pertaining to gold fish was changed. Further a ransom of US $ 1 million was demanded as ransom. Thus web jacking is a process where by control over the site of another is made backed by some consideration for it.

CLASSIFICATION:

The subject of cyber crime may be broadly classified under the following three groups. They are-

1. Against Individuals 
a. their person &
b. their property of an individual
 
2. Against Organization
a. Government
c. Firm, Company, Group of Individuals.

3. Against Society at large 
 The following are the crimes, which can be committed against the followings group

Against Individuals: –
i. Harassment via e-mails.
ii. Cyber-stalking.
iii. Dissemination of obscene material.
iv. Defamation.
v. Unauthorized control/access over computer system.
vi. Indecent exposure

vii. Email spoofing
viii. Cheating & Fraud


Against Individual Property: - 

i. Computer vandalism.
ii. Transmitting virus.
iii. Netrespass
iv. Unauthorized control/access over computer system.

v. Intellectual Property crimes
vi. Internet time thefts


Against Organization: -
i. Unauthorized control/access over computer system
ii. Possession of unauthorized information.
iii. Cyber terrorism against the government organization.
iv. Distribution of pirated software etc.


Against Society at large: -

i.     Pornography (basically child pornography).
ii.    Polluting the youth through indecent exposure.
iii.   Trafficking

iv. Financial crimes
v.Sale of illegal articles
vi.Online gambling
vii. Forgery
 The above mentioned offences may discussed in brief as follows:
 1.       Harassment via e-mails- 
              Harassment through e-mails is not a new concept. It is very similar to harassing through letters. Recently I had received a mail from a lady wherein she complained about the same. Her former boy friend was sending her mails constantly sometimes emotionally blackmailing her and also threatening her. This is a very common type of harassment via e-mails. 
2. Cyber-stalking-
The Oxford dictionary defines stalking as "pursuing stealthily". Cyber stalking   involves following a person's movements across the Internet by posting messages (sometimes threatening) on the bulletin boards frequented by the victim, entering the chat-rooms frequented by the victim, constantly bombarding the victim with emails etc.
  3.       Dissemination of obscene material/ Indecent exposure/ Pornography (basically child pornography) / Polluting through indecent exposure-
  Pornography on the net may take various forms. It may include the hosting of web site containing these prohibited materials. Use of computers for producing these obscene materials. Downloading through the Internet, obscene materials. These obscene matters may cause harm to the mind of the adolescent and tend to deprave or corrupt their mind. Two known cases of pornography are the Delhi Bal Bharati case and the Bombay case wherein two Swiss couple used to force the slum children for obscene photographs. The Mumbai police later arrested them.
 4.   Defamation
It is an act of imputing any person with intent to lower the person in the estimation of the right-thinking members of society generally or to cause him to be shunned or avoided or to expose him to hatred, contempt or ridicule. Cyber defamation is not different from conventional defamation except the involvement of a virtual medium. E.g. the mail account of Rohit was hacked and some mails were sent from his account to some of his batch mates regarding his affair with a girl with intent to defame him.
 4.      Unauthorized control/access over computer system-
 This activity is commonly referred to as hacking. The Indian law has however given a different connotation to the term hacking, so we will not use the term "unauthorized access" interchangeably with the term "hacking" to prevent confusion as the term used in the Act of 2000 is much wider than hacking.
 5.      E mail spoofing-
 A spoofed e-mail may be said to be one, which misrepresents its origin. It shows it's origin to be different from which actually it originates. Recently spoofed mails were sent on the name of Mr. Na.Vijayashankar (naavi.org), which contained virus.    
 Rajesh Manyar, a graduate student at Purdue University in Indiana, was arrested for threatening to detonate a nuclear device in the college campus. The alleged e- mail was sent from the account of another student to the vice president for student services. However the mail was traced to be sent from the account of Rajesh Manyar.(15) 
 6.   Computer vandalism-
  Vandalism means deliberately destroying or damaging property of another. Thus computer vandalism may include within its purview any kind of physical harm done to the computer of any person. These acts may take the form of the theft of a computer, some part of a computer or a peripheral attached to the computer or by physically damaging a computer or its peripherals.
 7.  Transmitting virus/worms-
 This topic has been adequately dealt herein above.
  8.  Intellectual Property crimes / Distribution of pirated software-
 Intellectual property consists of a bundle of rights. Any unlawful act by which the owner is deprived completely or partially of his rights is an offence. The common form of IPR violation may be said to be software piracy, copyright infringement, trademark and service mark violation, theft of computer source code, etc.
 The Hyderabad Court has in a land mark judgement has convicted three people and sentenced them to six months imprisonment and fine of 50,000 each for unauthorized copying and sell of pirated software. (16)
 9.  Cyber terrorism against the government organization
  At this juncture a necessity may be felt that what is the need to distinguish between cyber terrorism and cyber crime. Both are criminal acts. However there is a compelling need to distinguish between both these crimes. A cyber crime is generally a domestic issue, which may have international consequences, however cyber terrorism is a global concern, which has domestic as well as international consequences.  The common form of these terrorist attacks on the Internet is by distributed denial of service attacks, hate websites and hate emails, attacks on sensitive computer networks, etc.  Technology savvy terrorists are using 512-bit encryption, which is next to impossible to decrypt. The recent example may be cited of – Osama Bin Laden, the LTTE, attack on America’s army deployment system during Iraq war.
Cyber terrorism may be defined to be “ the premeditated use of disruptive activities, or the threat thereof, in cyber space, with the intention to further social, ideological, religious, political or similar objectives, or to intimidate any person in furtherance of such objectives” (4)
  Another definition may be attempted to cover within its ambit every act of cyber terrorism.
A terrorist means a person who indulges in wanton killing of persons or in violence or in disruption of services or means of communications essential to the community or in damaging property with the view to –
(1) putting the public or any section of the public in fear; or
(2) affecting adversely the harmony between different religious, racial, language or regional groups or castes or communities; or
(3) coercing or overawing the government established by law; or
(4) endangering the sovereignty and integrity of the nation
and a cyber terrorist is the person who uses the computer system as a means or ends to achieve the above objectives. Every act done in pursuance thereof is an act of cyber terrorism.
    10.Trafficking
   Trafficking may assume different forms. It may be trafficking in drugs, human beings, arms weapons etc. These forms of trafficking are going unchecked because they are carried on under pseudonyms. A racket was busted in Chennai where drugs were being sold under the pseudonym of honey.  
  1. Fraud & Cheating
 Online fraud and cheating is one of the most lucrative businesses that are growing today in the cyber space. It may assume different forms. Some of the cases of online fraud and cheating that have come to light are those pertaining to credit card crimes, contractual crimes, offering jobs, etc.
Recently the Court of Metropolitan Magistrate Delhi (17) found guilty a 24-year-old engineer working in a call centre, of fraudulently gaining the details of Campa's credit card and bought a television and a cordless phone from Sony website. Metropolitan magistrate Gulshan Kumar convicted Azim for cheating under IPC, but did not send him to jail. Instead, Azim was asked to furnish a personal bond of Rs 20,000, and was released on a year's probation.
   STATUTORY PROVISONS:
 The Indian parliament considered it necessary to give effect to the resolution by which the General Assembly adopted Model Law on Electronic Commerce adopted by the United Nations Commission on Trade Law. As a consequence of which the Information Technology Act 2000 was passed and enforced on 17th May 2000.the preamble of this Act states its objective to legalise e-commerce and further amend the Indian Penal Code 1860, the Indian Evidence Act 1872, the Banker’s Book Evidence Act1891 and   the Reserve Bank of India Act 1934.  The basic purpose to incorporate the changes in these Acts is to make them compatible with the Act of 2000. So that they may regulate and control the affairs of the cyber world in an effective manner.            
 The Information Technology Act deals with the various cyber crimes in chapters IX & XI. The important sections are Ss. 43,65,66,67. Section 43 in particular deals with the unauthorised access, unauthorised downloading, virus attacks or any contaminant, causes damage, disruption, denial of access, interference with the service availed by a person. This section provide for a fine up to Rs. 1 Crore by way of remedy. Section 65 deals with ‘tampering with computer source documents’ and provides for imprisonment up to 3 years or fine, which may extend up to 2 years or both. Section 66 deals with ‘hacking with computer system’ and provides for imprisonment up to 3 years or fine, which may extend up to 2 years or both. Further section 67 deals with publication of obscene material and provides for imprisonment up to a term of 10 years and also with fine up to Rs. 2 lakhs. (14)
 ANALYSIS OF THE STATUTORY PROVISONS:
The Information Technology Act 2000 was undoubtedly a welcome step at a time when there was no legislation on this specialised field. The Act has however during its application has proved to be inadequate to a certain extent. The various loopholes in the Act are-
 1. The hurry in which the legislation was passed, without sufficient public debate, did not   really serve the desired purpose (6)-
 Experts are of the opinion that one of the reasons for the inadequacy of the legislation has been the hurry in which it was passed by the parliament and it is also a fact that sufficient time was not given for public debate.
2. Cyberlaws, in their very preamble and aim, state that they are targeted at aiding e-commerce, and are not meant to regulate cybercrime”(6) –
  Mr. Pavan Duggal holds the opinion that the main intention of the legislators has been to provide for a law to regulate the e-commerce and with that aim the I.T.Act 2000 was passed, which also is one of the reasons for its inadequacy to deal with cases of cyber crime.
 At this point I would like to express my respectful dissent with Mr. Duggal. I feel that the above statement by Mr. Duggal is not fundamentally correct. The reason being that the preamble does state that the Act aims at legalising e-commerce. However it does not stop here. It further amends the I.P.C., Evidence Act, Banker’s Book Evidence and RBI Act also. The Act also aims to deal with all matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.  It is a cardinal rule of interpretation that “text should be read as a whole to gather the meaning”. It seems that the above statement has been made in total disregard of this rule of interpretation.  The preamble, if read as a whole, makes it very clear that the Act equally aims at legalising e-commerce and to curb any offences arising there from.
3.Cyber torts-
  The recent cases including Cyber stalking cyber harassment, cyber nuisance, and cyber defamation have shown that the I.T.Act 2000 has not dealt with those offences. Further it is also contended that in future new forms of cyber crime will emerge which even need to be   taken care of. Therefore India should sign the cyber crime convention. However the I.T.Act 2000 read with the Penal Code is capable of dealing with these felonies.
 4.Cyber crime in the Act is neither comprehensive nor exhaustive-
  Mr. Duggal believes that we need dedicated legislation on cyber crime that can supplement the Indian Penal Code. The contemporary view is held by Mr. Prathamesh Popat who has stated- "The IT Act, 2000 is not comprehensive enough and doesn't even define the term 'cyber crime". (8) Mr. Duggal has further commented, “India, as a nation, has to cope with an urgent need to regulate and punish those committing cyber crimes, but with no specific provisions to do so. Supporters of the Indian Penal Code School vehemently argue that IPC has stood the test of time and that it is not necessary to incorporate any special laws on cyber crime. This is because it is debated by them that the IPC alone is sufficient for all kinds of crime. However, in practical terms, the argument does not have appropriate backing. It has to be distinctly understood that cyber crime and cyberspace are completely new whelms, where numerous new possibilities and opportunities emerge by the day in the form of new kinds of crimes.”(6)                                                     
  I feel that a new legislation on cyber crime is totally unwarranted. The reason is that the new legislation not come alone but will bring with it the same confusion, the same dissatisfaction and the same desire to supplant it by further new legislation. Mr. Duggal has stated above the need to supplement IPC by a new legislation. If that is the issue then the present legislation along with the Penal Code when read harmoniously and co- jointly is sufficient to deal with the present problems of cyber crime. Further there are other legislations to deal with the intellectual property crimes on the cyber space such as the Patents Act, Copy Right Act, Trade Marks Act.
5.Ambiguity in the definitions-
  The definition of hacking provided in section 66 of the Act is very wide and capable of misapplication. There is every possibility of this section being misapplied and in fact the Delhi court has misapplied it. The infamous go2nextjob has made it very clear that what may be the fate of a person who is booked under section 66 or the constant threat under which the netizens are till s. 66 exists in its present form.
 Further section 67 is also vague to certain extent. It is difficult to define the term lascivious information or obscene pornographic informa­tion.  Further our inability to deal with the cases of cyber pornography  has been proved by the Bal Bharati case.       
6. Uniform law-   
   Mr. Vinod Kumar (9) holds the opinion that the need of the hour is a worldwide uniform cyber law to combat cyber crime. Cyber crime is a global phenomenon and therefore the initiative to fight it should come from the same level. E.g. the author of the love bug virus was appreciated by his countrymen.
7.Lack of awareness-
 One important reason that the Act of 2000 is not achieving complete success is the lack of awareness among the s about their rights. Further most of the cases are going unreported. If the people are vigilant about their rights the law definitely protects their right. E.g. the Delhi high court in October 2002 prevented a person from selling Microsoft pirated software over an auction site. Achievement was also made in the case before the court of metropolitan magistrate Delhi wherein a person was convicted for online cheating by buying Sony products using a stolen credit card. (17)
8. Jurisdiction issues-
   Jurisdiction is also one of the debatable issues in the cases of cyber crime due to the very universal nature of cyber space. With the ever-growing arms of cyber space the territorial concept seems to vanish. New methods of dispute resolution should give way to the conventional  methods. The Act of 2000 is very silent on these issues.
9. Extra territorial application-
Though S.75 provides for extra-territorial operations of this law, but they could be meaningful only when backed with provisions recognizing orders and warrants for Information issued by competent authorities outside their jurisdiction and measure for cooperation for exchange of material and evidence of computer crimes between law enforcement agencies.
10. Raising a cyber army-
 By using the word ‘cyber army’ by no means I want to convey the idea of virtual army, rather I am laying emphasis on the need for a well equipped task force to deal with the new trends of hi tech crime. The government has taken a leap in this direction by constituting cyber crime cells in all metropolitan and other important cities. Further the establishment of the Cyber Crime Investigation Cell (CCIC) of the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) 11) is definitely a welcome step in this direction. There are man cases in which the C.B.I has achieved success. The present position of cases of cyber crime (17) is –
Case 1: When a woman at an MNC started receiving obscene calls, CBI found her colleague had posted her personal details on Mumbaidating.com.
Status: Probe on
Case 2: CBI arrested a man from UP, Mohammed Feroz, who placed ads offering jobs in Germany. He talked to applicants via e-mail and asked them to deposit money in his bank account in Delhi.
Status: Chargesheet not filed
Case 3: The official web-site of the Central Board of Direct Taxes was hacked last year. As Pakistan-based hackers were responsible, authorities there were informed through Interpol.
Status: Pak not cooperating.
11. Cyber savvy bench-
 Cyber savvy judges are the need of the day. Judiciary plays a vital role in shaping the enactment according to the order of the day. One such stage, which needs appreciation, is the P.I.L., which the Kerela High Court has accepted through an email. The role of the judges in today’s word may be gathered by the statement- judges carve ‘law is’ to ‘law ought to be’. Mr T.K.Vishwanathan, member secretary, Law Commission , has highlighted  the requirements for introducing e-courts in India. In his article published in The Hindu he has stated “if there is one area of Governance where IT can make a huge difference to Indian public is in the Judicial System”.
12. Dynamic form of cyber crime-
   Speaking on the dynamic nature of cyber crime FBI Director Louis Freeh has said, "In short, even though we have markedly improved our capabilities to fight cyber intrusions the problem is growing even faster and we are falling further behind.”  The (de)creativity of human mind cannot be checked by any law. Thus the only way out is the liberal construction while applying the statutory provisions to cyber crime cases.  
13. Hesitation to report offences-
   As stated above one of the fatal drawbacks of the Act has been the cases going unreported. One obvious reason is the non-cooperative police force. This was proved by the Delhi time theft case. "The police are a powerful force today which can play an instrumental role in preventing cybercrime. At the same time, it can also end up wielding the rod and harassing innocent s, preventing them from going about their normal cyber business."(10) This attitude of the administration is also revelled by incident that took place at Merrut  and Belgam. (for the facts of these incidents refer to naavi.com). For complete realisation of the provisions of this Act a cooperative police force is require.
PREVENTION OF CYBER CRIME:
  Prevention is always better than cure. It is always better to take certain precaution while operating the net. A  should make them his part of cyber life. Saileshkumar Zarkar, technical advisor and network security consultant to the Mumbai Police Cyber crime Cell, advocates the 5P mantra for online security: Precaution, Prevention, Protection, Preservation and Perseverance.  A netizen should keep in mind the following things-
1.to prevent cyber stalking avoid disclosing any information pertaining to oneself. This is as good as disclosing your identity to strangers in public place.
2.always avoid sending any photograph online particularly to strangers and chat friends as there have been incidents of misuse of the photographs.
3.always use latest and up date anti virus software to guard against virus attacks.
4.always keep back up volumes so that one may not suffer data loss in case of virus contamination
5.never send your credit card number to any site that is not secured, to guard against frauds.
6.always keep a watch on the sites that your children are accessing to prevent any kind of harassment or depravation in children.
7.it is better to use a security programme that gives control over the cookies and send information back to the site as leaving the cookies unguarded might prove fatal.
8.web site owners should watch traffic and check any irregularity on the site. Putting host-based intrusion detection devices on servers may do this.
9.use of firewalls may be beneficial.
10. web servers running public sites must be physically separate protected from internal corporate network.
Adjudication of a Cyber Crime - On the directions of the Bombay High Court the Central Government has by a notification dated 25.03.03 has decided that the Secretary to the Information Technology Department in each state by designation would be appointed as the AO for each state.
 CONCLUSION:
 Capacity of human mind is unfathomable. It is not possible to eliminate cyber crime from the cyber space. It is quite possible to check them. History is the witness that no legislation has succeeded in totally eliminating crime from the globe. The only possible step is to make people aware of their rights and duties (to report crime as a collective duty towards the society) and further making the application of the laws more stringent to check crime. Undoubtedly the Act is a historical step in the cyber world. Further I all together do not deny that there is a need to bring changes in the Information Technology Act to make it more effective to combat cyber crime. I would conclude with a word of caution for the pro-legislation school that it should be kept in mind that the provisions of the cyber law are not made so stringent that it may retard the growth of the industry and prove to be counter-productive.





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